What does diagno6. analyse?

AFP (alpha-fetoprotein) is a protein produced mainly during fetal development, so healthy nonpregnant adults have only small amounts in the blood. In adults, a high result does not automatically mean cancer, because it can also occur in hepatitis, cirrhosis or liver cell injury. AFP is an auxiliary marker, not a stand-alone diagnostic test, and is assessed together with imaging.

CA 125 is a protein found on epithelial cells, including those of the peritoneum and pleura and of the female reproductive system. Its level can rise in cancers, including ovarian cancer, and also in many benign conditions, so the result alone cannot diagnose or exclude cancer. Interpretation depends on clinical context, age, menopausal status and ultrasound findings.

CA 15-3 is a marker related to the MUC1 protein, which glandular cells, including breast cells, produce. Its level may rise in some cancers, especially breast cancer, but it is not specific to this disease and the result alone cannot establish a diagnosis. It is not a screening test for healthy women, and changes over time during treatment monitoring matter most.

CA 19-9 is a blood marker most often associated with diseases of the pancreas and bile ducts. A high result may occur in gastrointestinal cancers, but also in pancreatitis, gallstones and liver disease, so it does not diagnose cancer by itself. Some people genetically do not produce it, so a low result does not always exclude disease.

CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) is a glycoprotein produced in large amounts during fetal life, so in healthy adults its blood level is usually very low. It may rise in some cancers, especially colorectal cancer, but also in smokers and in non-cancer diseases. CEA is not a screening test but is used to monitor an already-diagnosed disease.

Beta-hCG is the beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin, measured in serum or plasma mainly to detect and assess early pregnancy. It may also help in evaluating trophoblastic disease and some germ-cell tumors, but the result alone does not diagnose cancer or confirm normal pregnancy development. Reference ranges depend on sex, age, the purpose of testing and the laboratory method.

Free PSA (fPSA) is the fraction of PSA not bound to plasma proteins. The ratio of free to total PSA makes it possible to more accurately distinguish the cause of prostate gland enlargement.

HE4 is a protein measured in blood as an auxiliary marker in evaluating selected ovarian and pelvic lesions. It may be elevated in some epithelial ovarian cancers, but the result alone does not diagnose cancer or reliably distinguish a benign lesion from a malignant one. It is usually assessed with CA-125 and menopausal status, and reduced kidney function (lower eGFR) can falsely raise the result.

MSAFP is maternal alpha-fetoprotein measured in pregnancy, and the result is given as MoM, a multiple of the median for the given gestational week. In pregnancy, the standard ng/mL range for nonpregnant adults is not used. The result is adjusted for gestational age, maternal weight, multiple pregnancy, insulin-dependent diabetes, smoking and other data used by the laboratory.

PSA is a protein produced almost exclusively by the prostate gland, and usually only a little of it reaches the blood. Its level rises not only in prostate cancer but also in benign enlargement, prostatitis and after some urological procedures, and drugs such as finasteride and dutasteride can lower it. The result is assessed with age, symptoms and change over time.

Percentage ROMA result calculated for a postmenopausal person. The result should be compared with the laboratory cutoff for the method used.

Percentage ROMA result calculated for a premenopausal person. The result should be compared with the laboratory cutoff for the method used.

Albumin is the main blood plasma protein, made by the liver. A low level may point to liver disease, malnutrition or inflammation, while a high level rarely has clinical meaning. The result is read together with other tests.

Amylase is a digestive enzyme that breaks down starch and is made mainly in the pancreas and salivary glands. Its level may rise with irritation, inflammation or damage of these organs, and also with biliary disease or kidney failure; a low result is less common. The result alone does not diagnose pancreatic or salivary-gland disease.

Urine amylase is the activity of a digestive enzyme excreted by the kidneys and made mainly in the pancreas and salivary glands. The result may support the assessment of pancreatic disorders, but it does not diagnose them or show the severity of pancreatitis. Reference ranges depend on the laboratory, so compare the result with the range of the laboratory that did the test.

Beta-hydroxybutyrate is the main ketone body measured in blood. An elevated value together with acidosis may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis.

Bicarbonate helps assess acid-base balance. A low value together with ketonaemia and hyperglycaemia may support suspected diabetic ketoacidosis.

Blood pH describes acid-base balance. A low value indicates acidosis and should be interpreted with bicarbonate, glucose, ketones, and the clinical condition.

Calcium is needed for bones, teeth, muscles and blood clotting; most of it is stored in bones. A low level can cause muscle cramps, and a high level can be a sign of parathyroid disease. The test helps diagnose bone and parathyroid diseases.

Chloride (Cl⁻) is one of the main blood electrolytes. With sodium, potassium and bicarbonate it helps keep the amount of water in the body and the acid-base balance. A low or high result may come from dehydration, vomiting, kidney disease or acid-base disorders, so it is read with other electrolytes and symptoms.

Creatine kinase (CK), also called creatine phosphokinase (CPK), is an enzyme found mainly in skeletal muscles, the heart muscle and the brain. A high level most often points to muscle damage or breakdown. The result is read together with clinical symptoms.

Erythrocyte magnesium reflects magnesium stores inside cells over the past 2-3 months. A low result shows long-term depletion, even when serum magnesium is normal. The test is useful when a hidden magnesium deficiency is suspected.

Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main energy source for cells, especially for the brain. A level that is too low can cause tremor, confusion or even loss of consciousness, and a level that stays too high damages vessels, nerves and organs. The result depends on sampling time, meals, stress and medicines, so it is read with symptoms and other tests, for example HbA1c.

HbA1c, or glycated hemoglobin, shows the average blood glucose level over the last 2-3 months. A high result means glucose was too high for a long time, which may point to prediabetes or diabetes, and in treated people a very low result may mean episodes of low glucose. The result may be unreliable with some anemias and red blood cell disorders, so it is read with other tests.

Inorganic phosphate is needed for energy metabolism, bone mineralization and acid-base balance. A low level may point to vitamin D deficiency, hyperparathyroidism or refeeding syndrome, and a high level occurs in kidney failure. The test helps find calcium-phosphate metabolism disorders.

Ionized calcium is the biologically active form of calcium in blood, not bound to proteins, and it matters for nerve and muscle function. A low level can cause tetany, and a high level can cause kidney stones. The test is more reliable than total calcium and is important in critical conditions.

Ionized magnesium is the biologically active form of magnesium in blood, not bound to proteins. It shows true magnesium status more precisely than total magnesium, especially when albumin is low. The test helps find a true magnesium deficiency.

Lipase is a digestive enzyme made mainly in the pancreas that helps break down fats. Its activity may rise when the pancreas is irritated, inflamed or damaged, and also with biliary disease, kidney failure or alcohol; a low result is less common. The result alone does not diagnose pancreatitis or cancer.

Magnesium takes part in over 300 enzyme reactions and is important for bones, teeth, the heart and nerves. A low level can cause muscle cramps and fatigue, and a high level can be toxic. The test helps find nutritional deficiencies.

Potassium (K⁺) is the main electrolyte inside cells and is needed by the heart, nerves and muscles. A high level can disturb the heart rhythm, and a low level can point to kidney disease or malnutrition. Some medicines can change the result.

Serum osmolality shows the concentration of osmotically active substances in plasma. A result outside the normal range points to water-electrolyte balance disorders, such as sodium that is too low or too high. The test helps find dehydration, overhydration and diabetes insipidus.

Sodium (Na⁺) is the main electrolyte outside cells and it regulates water-electrolyte balance and blood pressure. A high level can cause dehydration or hypertension, and a low level can point to kidney or heart disease. Excess sodium in the diet can affect the result.

Total serum protein includes albumins and globulins and reflects overall nutritional status and liver function. A low level may point to malnutrition, liver disease or nephrotic syndrome, and a high level may occur in multiple myeloma or inflammation. The test helps assess overall health and find protein disorders.

Uric acid is a product of purine metabolism in the body. A high level can cause gout, is linked to a higher risk of heart and kidney disease, and can occur in people with obesity. A diet rich in purines and some medicines affect the result, and the test helps diagnose gout and monitor treatment.

Zinc (Zn) is a trace element needed for enzymes, immunity and wound healing; the test measures its concentration in blood. A low result may suggest deficiency, while a high result usually relates to excess supplementation and can disturb copper balance. The result does not always reflect total-body zinc and is affected by inflammation, so it is read with symptoms and other tests.

17-OHP is a steroid hormone made mainly in the adrenal glands and is an intermediate step in cortisol production. A clearly high result can support the suspicion of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and a low result usually has less meaning. The result depends on age, sex, cycle phase and sampling time, and the test alone is not enough for a diagnosis.

ACTH is a pituitary hormone that stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol. A high result can occur when the adrenal glands make too little cortisol, and a low result can point to a problem in the pituitary gland or in central regulation. ACTH level changes during the day, so the test is usually done in the morning and read together with cortisol.

Aldosterone is a hormone of the adrenal cortex that regulates sodium and potassium balance and body fluid volume. A high level can point to hyperaldosteronism, and a low level to adrenal insufficiency or aldosterone deficiency. The result depends on body position and sodium intake, and it is read together with renin.

Androstenedione is a steroid hormone of the androgen group, made mainly in the adrenal glands and the gonads. A high result can occur in polycystic ovary syndrome and congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and a low result in adrenal insufficiency or hypogonadism. The result alone does not show the source of androgen excess, so it is read with symptoms and other hormones.

AMH is a hormone made in the ovaries by small growing follicles and is used to assess ovarian reserve. A high result is common in polycystic ovary syndrome, and a low result means a smaller reserve, which is a natural change with age. AMH reflects the number of follicles, not the quality of egg cells, so it is not a stand-alone fertility test.

Anti-TG antibodies target thyroglobulin, a protein of the thyroid gland. Their presence can point to an autoimmune cause of thyroid disease such as Hashimoto thyroiditis, and a low or negative result is usually more favourable. The result alone does not show disease activity or severity, so it is read with TSH and fT4.

Anti-TPO antibodies target thyroid peroxidase, the enzyme that makes thyroid hormones. A positive result is a common marker of autoimmune thyroid disease, usually Hashimoto thyroiditis, and a low or negative result usually means no detectable autoimmunity. The result does not show how damaged the thyroid is, so it is read with TSH, fT4 and symptoms.

C-peptide is made in the pancreas together with insulin and shows how much insulin the body makes by itself. A high result is often seen in insulin resistance and early type 2 diabetes, and a low result in type 1 diabetes or advanced type 2 diabetes. It is read together with glucose, insulin and symptoms.

Transcribe the clinician’s conclusion about thyroid blood flow from an existing Doppler ultrasound report. Increased flow may support further work-up, but on its own it does not establish the cause of hyperthyroidism, especially in pregnancy.

Transcribe the reporting clinician’s conclusion from an existing thyroid scan or radioiodine uptake report. The scan alone does not establish the cause of hyperthyroidism; it is interpreted together with hormones, medicines and prior iodine exposure.

Transcribe the reporting clinician's literal conclusion from an existing report; nonspecific heterogeneity does not establish Hashimoto.

Cortisol is a stress hormone made by the adrenal glands that regulates glucose metabolism and the stress response. A high level can point to Cushing syndrome and a low level to adrenal insufficiency. The normal range depends on the time of day, so the result is read with the sampling time.

Cortisol measured after taking dexamethasone as part of a suppression test, for example the overnight 1 mg test. The result is judged by the criterion of that test, not the ordinary morning range. A missed dose or vomiting after the tablet may invalidate the test.

DHEA-S is a weak androgen made mainly by the adrenal cortex and used as a marker of androgens from the adrenal glands. A high result can occur in polycystic ovary syndrome and congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and a low result naturally with age or in adrenal insufficiency. Ranges depend on age and sex, and the result is read with symptoms and other hormones.

DHT is an androgen formed from testosterone, active mainly in the skin, hair follicles, prostate and genital organs. A high level is linked to androgenic hair loss and prostate enlargement, and in women to signs of androgen excess, while a low level can be linked to weaker androgen action. The result is read with testosterone and symptoms.

Estradiol is the primary estrogen and affects reproductive function, bone and hormonal regulation. Its meaning depends on sex, age, menstrual-cycle phase, pregnancy, menopause and other hormone results.

Transcribe the literal final conclusion from an existing tissue report; nonspecific lymphocytes do not establish disease. This does not recommend biopsy.

FSH is a pituitary hormone that regulates gonadal function. In women it supports ovarian follicle maturation, while in men it supports sperm production. The result is interpreted according to sex, age and other hormone levels.

The amount of free cortisol excreted in urine over a full day, reported per 24 hours. It requires a complete urine collection. Reduced kidney function may lower the result.

Free testosterone is the fraction of testosterone more readily available to tissues. It helps assess biological androgen activity, especially when SHBG alters the relationship between total testosterone and the amount available to the body.

fT4 is the free fraction of thyroxine, not bound to transport proteins and available to tissues. High TSH with low fT4 usually points to hypothyroidism, and low TSH with high fT4 to hyperthyroidism. The result is read with TSH, symptoms, medications and pregnancy.

fT3 is the free, active fraction of triiodothyronine, the most active thyroid hormone. A high result supports hyperthyroidism, and a low result is a less reliable marker of hypothyroidism and can result from severe illness. The result is read with TSH, fT4, symptoms and medications.

Glucose measured 60 minutes after a 75 g oral glucose load is one point of the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The result alone does not diagnose diabetes, gestational diabetes, insulin resistance or reactive hypoglycemia. It is read with the fasting and 2-hour values, symptoms, pregnancy and test conditions.

Glucose measured 120 minutes after a 75 g oral glucose load is the 2-hour point of the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The result alone does not automatically confirm diabetes, gestational diabetes, ketoacidosis or a hyperosmolar state. It is read with fasting glucose, symptoms, pregnancy, medications and test conditions.

Insulin is a hormone of the pancreas that regulates blood glucose. A high level indicates insulin resistance, and a low level can be a sign of type 1 diabetes. The normal range depends on the laboratory method, and the result is read together with glucose.

Insulin measured one hour after a glucose load assesses the early response of the pancreas to glucose. A low level can point to type 1 diabetes, and the test helps diagnose disorders of insulin secretion. The normal range depends on the laboratory method.

Insulin measured two hours after a glucose load, which shows the late response of the pancreas. A high level points to insulin resistance and helps assess metabolic risk. The normal range depends on the laboratory method.

Iodine is a trace element needed to make thyroid hormones and must come from the diet. A low result can point to too little intake and can promote goiter and hypothyroidism, and a high result usually means a large iodine load that can disturb thyroid function in some people. The test mainly reflects current exposure, and urinary iodine better shows long-term status.

Iodine in a 24-hour urine collection is the amount of iodine passed in urine over one day and shows recent iodine intake. A low result can point to too little intake, and a high result to a large iodine load that can disturb thyroid function in some people. Missing part of the urine, a collection that is too short or too long, or poor storage can falsify the result.

The category assigned to the anti-TG result by the reporting laboratory. It takes precedence over comparing the numeric value with the catalog default range. It also carries results reported as an interval, for example above the measuring range.

The category assigned to the anti-TPO result by the reporting laboratory. It takes precedence over comparing the numeric value with the catalog default range. It also carries results reported as an interval, for example above the measuring range.

The category assigned to the TRAb result by the reporting laboratory. It takes precedence over comparing the numeric value with the catalog default range. It also carries results reported as an interval.

The category assigned to the TSI result by the reporting laboratory, whatever scale was used. It takes precedence over comparing a numeric value with a range and is a sufficient basis for assessment when the report states no number.

Cortisol measured in saliva collected late in the evening, when its level should naturally be at its lowest. The result is compared with the laboratory range for this method and collection time. Collection at another time, irregular sleep or contamination of the sample, for example with hydrocortisone cream, make interpretation difficult.

LH is a pituitary hormone that regulates gonadal function. In women it supports ovulation and corpus-luteum function, while in men it stimulates testosterone production. The result is interpreted according to sex, age and other hormone levels.

Macroprolactin is a large form of prolactin, usually bound to an antibody, which can inflate the total prolactin result. A low prolactin recovery after PEG precipitation means mostly macroprolactin, usually a benign state, and a high recovery means mostly active prolactin. The test is done most often when total prolactin is high.

The level of monomeric prolactin, the main active form of the hormone, measured with a method that separates the fractions, for example gel filtration chromatography. Compare the result only with the range the laboratory reports for that method and fraction. It is not calculated from total prolactin and the post-PEG recovery.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is made by the parathyroid glands and helps regulate calcium-phosphate balance and bone metabolism. A high result may occur in hyperparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency or chronic kidney disease, and a low result may suggest hypoparathyroidism. Interpret it together with calcium, phosphate, vitamin D and kidney function.

Progesterone is a sex hormone made mainly by the corpus luteum in the ovary, and in pregnancy also by the placenta; its level rises after ovulation. A level that is too low at the wrong point of the cycle may suggest no ovulation or a luteal phase disorder. Relate the result to the cycle day; it does not diagnose one condition by itself.

Proinsulin is an insulin precursor. Measurement during confirmed hypoglycaemia can support assessment of endogenous insulin secretion, but it must be interpreted with glucose, insulin, C-peptide, and the clinical context.

Prolactin is a hormone that regulates lactation and fertility. A high level can cause infertility, and the test helps assess pituitary function. The normal range depends on sex and cycle phase, and some medicines can raise the result.

Serum or plasma prolactin 120 minutes after oral administration of 10 mg metoclopramide. This result is an additional point on the response curve and should not be interpreted as a standalone prolactin suppression test.

Serum or plasma prolactin 30 minutes after metoclopramide administration. This result is a point on the dynamic curve and does not receive a separate laboratory status.

Serum or plasma prolactin 60 minutes after metoclopramide administration. This result is a point on the dynamic curve and does not receive a separate laboratory status.

The final prolactin level after polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, corrected by the laboratory for dilution. It is a practical assessment of the monomeric fraction, not a measure of its biological activity. Compare it with the laboratory range for the post-PEG value, not with the total prolactin range.

Baseline serum or plasma prolactin measured before metoclopramide administration. It determines the main classification of the test and should primarily be compared with the laboratory reference range.

Renin is an enzyme from the kidneys that starts the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which regulates blood pressure. A high level may indicate secondary hyperaldosteronism, renal artery stenosis or dehydration, and a low level with high aldosterone indicates primary hyperaldosteronism. The normal range depends on body position, sodium intake and medicines.

SHBG is a protein produced mainly by the liver that transports sex hormones. Its concentration affects free testosterone and estradiol availability, so the result is interpreted with total hormone levels, albumin and symptoms.

A TSI result reported as the index of a specific assay. TSI scales are not interconvertible, so the index, IU/L and percentage forms are separate observations. Interpretation requires the criterion supplied by the reporting laboratory; there is no threshold shared by all methods.

A TSI result reported in IU/L. This is a separate measurement from the TSI index and from the percentage form; values are not converted between scales. Assessment depends on the criterion stated in the laboratory report.

A TSI result reported as a percentage. The percentage scale cannot be converted to an index or to IU/L. The meaning of the result follows the criterion of the assay used, not a general threshold.

Total testosterone is a sex hormone important for sexual function, muscle, bone, energy and wellbeing. The meaning of the result depends on sex, age, symptoms, sampling time, SHBG and other hormone levels.

The total T4 test measures all the thyroxine in blood: the small free fraction and the larger part bound to transport proteins. High or low total T4 does not by itself diagnose hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism. The result also depends on transport proteins, so it is assessed with TSH, FT4 and the laboratory range.

The total T3 test measures all the triiodothyronine in blood: the small free fraction and the larger part bound to transport proteins. High or low total T3 does not by itself diagnose hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism. The result also depends on transport proteins, so it is assessed with TSH, FT4 and the laboratory range.

TSH is a pituitary hormone that stimulates the thyroid and regulates its hormone production. A high level indicates hypothyroidism, and a low level indicates hyperthyroidism. The normal range depends on the laboratory method, and the test is the first step in thyroid disease diagnosis.

TRAb are antibodies against the TSH receptor on thyroid cells; some of them stimulate the thyroid, which is typical of Graves' disease. A positive or high result suggests an autoimmune process and may lead to hyperthyroidism, while a low or negative result is usually favorable. Read it with TSH, fT4, fT3 and symptoms.

The concentration of cortisol in a urine sample (per litre). The concentration alone does not describe daily excretion; the daily amount reported by the laboratory is needed for assessment.

APTT is a clotting test that measures how many seconds a plasma sample needs to form a clot after reagents are added. A prolonged time can result from heparin treatment, clotting factor deficiencies such as hemophilia, von Willebrand disease or severe liver disease. Read it with PT/INR, platelets, medications and symptoms, and note that sample collection quality matters.

The APTT ratio shows how many times the clotting time of the patient's sample differs from the control sample of the laboratory. A value near 1.0 is close to the control, above the reference range means relative prolongation, and below it means relative shortening. It does not diagnose a specific disease alone, so read it with APTT in seconds, PT, INR, fibrinogen, platelets and medications.

Band neutrophils are younger forms of neutrophils, which are normally few in the blood. A high percentage may support suspicion of an acute infection, especially bacterial, or a strong inflammatory response, but it also occurs after injury, surgery or bleeding and does not diagnose infection alone. Read it with the white cell count, neutrophils, CRP, symptoms and the blood smear report.

Basophils are very rare white blood cells that release histamine and take part in allergic and inflammatory reactions. A high count is uncommon and may occur with allergy, chronic inflammation or bone marrow disorders, while a low count usually matters little. Read it with the total white cell count, other white cell types, symptoms and medications.

The basophil percentage shows their share among all white blood cells; basophils are the rarest white cells and take part in allergy and inflammation. A low result usually has little diagnostic meaning, and a high result does not point to one cause. The percentage can mislead when other white cells change, so read it with the absolute basophil count, the total white cell count and symptoms.

D-dimers are protein fragments released when a fibrin clot is broken down. A normal result can help exclude deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism when clinical probability is low or moderate, while a high result is nonspecific and also occurs after surgery or with infection, pregnancy or cancer. It does not show where a clot is, so read it with symptoms and other tests.

Eosinophils are white blood cells involved in allergy, defense against parasites and inflammation. A high count most often suggests allergy such as asthma, but can also come from drug reactions, parasitic infections or blood disorders, while a low count usually carries less weight. Read it with the total white cell count, symptoms, medications and travel history.

The eosinophil percentage shows their share among white blood cells; these cells take part in allergy, response to parasites and inflammation. A high result, called eosinophilia, is most often related to allergy, drug reactions, parasitic infections or inflammatory disease. The percentage can look high when other white cells are few, so read it with the absolute eosinophil count.

Fibrinogen is a protein involved in blood clotting. High levels can indicate inflammation or liver disease, and low levels can cause a bleeding tendency. The test helps assess thrombotic risk and monitor inflammatory diseases, and the result is read together with other clotting tests.

Hematocrit shows what fraction of the blood volume is taken up by red blood cells. A low value is most often linked to anemia or overly diluted blood, and a high value to dehydration, smoking, chronic hypoxia, lung disease, high altitude or excessive red cell production. The result alone does not show the cause, so read it with hemoglobin, red blood cell count, MCV and symptoms.

Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. A low level is most often linked to anemia and may cause fatigue, weakness or pale skin, and a high level may occur with dehydration, smoking, chronic hypoxia, lung disease or living at high altitude. The result alone does not show the cause, so read it with RBC, hematocrit, MCV and symptoms.

IG# is the absolute count of immature granulocytes in peripheral blood. A value near zero is expected in healthy people. Elevated values may reflect accelerated release of young granulocyte forms from the bone marrow and should be interpreted together with the complete blood count, neutrophils, inflammatory markers, blood smear, and clinical context.

IG% is the percentage of immature granulocytes among white blood cells. A value near zero is expected in healthy people. Because a percentage can be affected by the total white blood cell count, interpret IG% together with the absolute IG# count, WBC, neutrophils, inflammatory markers, blood smear, and clinical context.

INR (international normalized ratio) is a converted PT result that makes results from different laboratories easier to compare. A high INR means slower clotting and a higher risk of bleeding, and in a person treated with warfarin a low INR may mean the drug is too weak. The target range depends on the reason for treatment, so read the result together with medications.

Lymphocytes are white blood cells that are key to defense against viruses and to antibody production. A high count most often reflects an infection, especially viral, and a low count may occur with stress, glucocorticoids, chemotherapy, malnutrition or immune deficiency. Read it with the total white cell count, CRP, symptoms and medications.

The lymphocyte percentage shows their share among all white blood cells; these cells fight infections and build immunity. A high percentage most often results from a viral infection, and a low one can occur with immune deficiency or glucocorticoids. The percentage can mislead when neutrophils change, so read it with the absolute lymphocyte count.

MCH is the average amount of hemoglobin in a single red blood cell. A low value is most often linked to iron deficiency, and a high value often goes with large cells, for example in vitamin B12 or folate deficiency. Do not read it alone, but with MCV, MCHC, hemoglobin, hematocrit and the red blood cell count.

MCHC is the average concentration of hemoglobin inside red blood cells. A low value means the hemoglobin is too dilute, most often with iron deficiency, while a very high value is rare and may come from technical interference or rarer inherited red cell disorders. Do not read it alone, but with MCV, MCH, hemoglobin, hematocrit and the red blood cell count.

MCV is the average size of a single red blood cell. A low value is most often linked to iron deficiency, but may also occur with thalassemia or chronic inflammation, and a high value often with vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, liver disease, heavy alcohol use, hypothyroidism or some medications. Read it with hemoglobin, hematocrit, RBC, MCH, MCHC and RDW.

MPV is the average size of platelets. A high value means more large, usually younger platelets, for example after bleeding or with increased platelet use, and a low value may point to weaker platelet production in the bone marrow. It does not point to a specific disease, so read it with the platelet count, other platelet indices, symptoms and the rest of the blood count.

Monocytes are large white blood cells that move into tissues and become macrophages, which engulf microbes and dead cells. A high count often appears when an infection is resolving or with chronic inflammation, and a low count usually matters less. Read it with the total white cell count, CRP, symptoms and medications.

The monocyte percentage shows their share among all white blood cells; these cells help fight infections and clear tissues after inflammation. A high result can occur during or after an infection or with chronic inflammation, and a low result usually matters less. The percentage can mislead when other white cells change, so read it with the total white cell count and the absolute monocyte count.

Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells and respond first to bacterial infection and acute inflammation. A high count often reflects infection, inflammation, injury or glucocorticoids, while a low count weakens defense against infection and occurs after viral infections or chemotherapy. Read it with the total white cell count, symptoms and medications.

The neutrophil percentage shows their share among all white blood cells. A high result most often reflects infection, inflammation, injury or stress but does not prove a bacterial infection, and a low result can mean neutropenia and needs attention, especially with fever. The percentage can mislead when other white cells change, so read it with the absolute neutrophil count.

NRBC# is the absolute count of nucleated red blood cells in peripheral blood. Beyond the neonatal period these immature red cells are normally absent, so the expected result is 0.00 x10³/µL. Interpret NRBC# together with the complete blood count, reticulocytes, blood smear, and clinical context.

NRBC% is the ratio of nucleated red blood cells to white blood cells in a complete blood count. Beyond the neonatal period these immature red cells are normally absent from peripheral blood. Interpret NRBC% together with the absolute NRBC# count, the complete blood count, blood smear, and clinical context.

Platelets, also called thrombocytes, stop bleeding by forming a plug at the site of vessel injury. Too few platelets raise the risk of bruising, nosebleeds, gum bleeding or prolonged bleeding after cuts, and too many can mean a higher tendency to form clots. The result alone does not show the cause, so read it with symptoms and the rest of the blood count.

PDW shows how much platelets differ in size. A high value may go with inflammation, infection, the period after bleeding, increased platelet use or bone marrow disorders, and a low value usually reflects a more uniform platelet population. Do not read it alone, but with the platelet count, MPV, symptoms and the rest of the blood count.

P-LCR shows what percentage of platelets are large, usually younger ones. A high value may mean platelets are used or destroyed faster and the bone marrow makes more new ones, while a low value usually matters less. It does not diagnose a disease alone, so read it with the platelet count, MPV, PDW, PCT and symptoms.

Plateletcrit (PCT) shows what part of the blood volume all platelets take up together, and depends on their number and average size. A low value may go with a low platelet count or smaller platelets, and a high value with inflammation, blood loss, iron deficiency or bone marrow disease. Do not read it alone, but with the platelet count, MPV, symptoms and the rest of the blood count.

The prothrombin index, shown as a percentage, is a way to present the prothrombin time (PT), which depends partly on clotting factors made in the liver. A lower index usually means slower clotting, which is the reverse of PT or INR. It does not diagnose a disease alone, so read it with PT, INR, APTT, fibrinogen, platelets and medications.

PT (prothrombin time) shows how quickly a clot forms in a plasma sample. A prolonged PT means slower clotting and may point to a higher tendency to bleed, for example with liver disease, vitamin K deficiency or warfarin treatment; a shortened PT usually matters less. The result depends on medications and sample collection, and it should always be read together with INR, APTT and other tests.

RBC is the count of red blood cells, which carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. A low result may point to anemia, for example from iron, vitamin B12 or folate deficiency or from blood loss; a high result may come from dehydration, smoking or lung disease. The normal count depends on age and sex, and the result is read together with hemoglobin and hematocrit.

RDW-CV is a complete blood count parameter that shows how much red blood cells vary in size. A high result means greater variation in size (anisocytosis) and may occur with iron, vitamin B12 or folate deficiency or after bleeding; a low result usually has no independent significance. RDW-CV does not diagnose anemia, and it should be read together with MCV, hemoglobin and other tests.

RDW-SD shows how much red blood cells differ from one another in size. A high result means greater variation (anisocytosis) and may occur with iron, vitamin B12 or folate deficiency or after blood loss, sometimes before hemoglobin falls; a low result is usually not a concern. The result does not show the cause, so read it together with MCV, hemoglobin and RBC.

RET% shows what percentage of all red blood cells are reticulocytes, which are young cells recently released from the bone marrow. It helps show how well the marrow makes new red cells. It is a relative value, so read it together with the absolute reticulocyte count RET#, hemoglobin, hematocrit and RBC.

RET# is the absolute count of reticulocytes, which are young red blood cells made in the bone marrow, in a given volume of blood. It helps show whether the marrow makes enough new red cells for the body's needs. The result alone does not diagnose anemia, bleeding, hemolysis or bone-marrow disease, so read it together with hemoglobin, hematocrit, RBC, RET% and other blood count results.

TT (thrombin time) measures how fast a clot forms in plasma after thrombin is added, which is the final stage of clotting where fibrinogen turns into fibrin. A prolonged TT may result from low or abnormal fibrinogen, from heparin, or from severe liver disease. Heparin in the sample can disturb the result, so TT is read together with fibrinogen, PT, INR and APTT.

WBC is the count of white blood cells, the immune cells that protect the body against bacteria, viruses and other threats. A rise may occur with infection, inflammation, injury or severe stress, and a fall may occur with viral infections, autoimmune disease or drugs that suppress the bone marrow. The result alone does not show the cause, so read it together with symptoms and CRP.

Anti-CCP antibodies (ACPA) are autoantibodies directed against citrullinated proteins, used mainly in the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis. A negative or low result is usually normal but does not exclude the disease. A positive result alone is not enough to diagnose it.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a protein made mainly by the liver, and its level rises quickly with infection, tissue injury or other inflammation. A high result shows that inflammation may be present but not where it is or what caused it. The result is read together with symptoms and other tests, and a very early test may not yet show a rise.

The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) measures how fast red blood cells settle in a tube over one hour. A faster rate can point to inflammation, infection, an autoimmune disease or other strain on the body, but it does not show the cause. Age, sex and anemia also affect it, so it is read together with symptoms and other tests.

hs-CRP is a sensitive test that detects very small amounts of C-reactive protein, which the liver makes during inflammation. A raised result without infection can point to chronic low-grade inflammation and a higher risk of heart and vessel disease. It is a risk marker, not a test that identifies a specific disease.

Procalcitonin (PCT) is an indicator of how severe a bacterial infection is. A high level points to sepsis or severe infection and helps tell bacterial infections apart and decide on antibiotic treatment. The result is especially important in critical conditions and a doctor must interpret it.

Rheumatoid factor (RF) is an autoantibody measured as an aid mainly in diagnosing rheumatoid arthritis. A low or negative result is usually normal but does not exclude the disease. An elevated result is not enough to diagnose it and is read with symptoms, medical examination and other results.

Ferritin is a protein that stores iron, and its blood level helps assess iron reserves. A low result usually means depleted stores, while a high result does not always mean iron overload, because ferritin also rises with inflammation, liver disease, obesity, kidney disease, cancer and heavy alcohol intake. It is read together with CRP, blood count and other iron tests.

Liver iron concentration is the amount of iron in liver tissue, measured by magnetic resonance imaging with an iron protocol or in a liver biopsy; it is not a blood test. The result is given in mg Fe/g of dry liver weight, and 1 mg Fe/g is about 17.9067 µmol Fe/g. Do not enter a result based on wet weight or on T2* or R2* alone without conversion by the imaging centre.

Serum iron is the amount of iron circulating in the blood, mainly bound to transferrin; it does not show total iron stores. A low result can come from iron deficiency, chronic bleeding, malabsorption or inflammation, and a high one from iron overload or liver disease. The result varies with time of day, meals and supplements, so it is read together with ferritin, TIBC, TSAT, blood count and CRP.

TIBC is the total iron-binding capacity, that is, how much iron the blood can bind and carry; it indirectly reflects the amount of transferrin. A high result often occurs in iron deficiency, while a low one may coexist with inflammation, chronic disease, eating disorders or iron overload. The result alone does not show the cause, so it is read together with iron, ferritin, transferrin and TSAT.

Transferrin is a protein made mainly in the liver that carries iron in the blood to the tissues; it does not show iron stores. A high result often occurs in iron deficiency, in pregnancy or with estrogens, and a low one with liver disease, malnutrition, inflammation or protein loss. It is read together with ferritin, iron, TIBC, TSAT, blood count and CRP.

Transferrin saturation (TSAT) is a percentage showing how much of transferrin's iron-binding capacity is currently in use. Low saturation may indicate limited iron availability, but on its own it does not prove that iron stores are exhausted. It is interpreted together with iron, TIBC, ferritin, blood count and inflammatory markers.

UIBC is the unsaturated iron-binding capacity, that is, how many free sites in the blood can still bind iron. A high result usually supports a suspicion of iron deficiency, while a low one may occur with greater transferrin saturation or less transferrin, for example in chronic or liver disease. The result alone does not show the cause, so it is read with iron, TIBC, TSAT and ferritin.

The total amount of urine passed over a full day, measured during a complete 24-hour collection. It helps a doctor judge whether urine output is clearly higher than usual. It should not be estimated from a single void.

This test measures the amount of protein excreted in urine over a day. A high result points to kidney damage but can also be raised by infections; the normal range is below 150 mg per day. It needs urine collection for 24 hours and helps classify kidney disease.

This test measures daily urinary albumin excretion from a 24-hour collection. It uses an immunoturbidimetric or nephelometric method.

Bacteria in urine sediment indicate whether microorganisms are visible in the sample. Their presence does not always mean a urinary tract infection because it may also result from sample contamination. Interpret the result together with leukocytes, nitrites, symptoms, sample collection, and a urine culture when indicated.

Bacteria in urine sediment indicate whether microorganisms are visible in the sample. Their presence does not always mean a urinary tract infection because it may also result from sample contamination. Interpret the result together with leukocytes, nitrites, symptoms, sample collection, and a urine culture when indicated.

Bilirubin is a yellow-orange pigment formed when hemoglobin breaks down, and this test detects it in urine, usually with a dipstick. Healthy urine does not contain it; a positive result can suggest liver disease or impaired bile flow, but it does not show the cause alone. A negative result does not exclude liver disease, and light or long storage of the sample can lower the result.

This test measures the amount of calcium the kidneys excrete over 24 hours and helps assess kidney-stone risk and calcium balance. The result depends on diet, vitamin D, PTH, kidney function, medicines and collection completeness.

Creatinine is made mainly in the muscles and removed from the blood by the kidneys. A high result can mean weaker kidney filtration, but also dehydration, medicines, exercise, much meat in the diet or large muscle mass; a low result usually relates to low muscle mass. Interpret it together with eGFR, a urine test and other results.

Creatinine in a 24-hour urine collection measures the total amount of creatinine excreted by the kidneys over 24 hours.

First-morning urine creatinine measures the creatinine concentration in a single sample collected after overnight rest.

Cystatin C is a protein made by all nucleated cells and filtered by the kidneys. Its blood level depends mainly on kidney filtration, not on muscle mass, so it often shows early decline in kidney function better than creatinine, especially in older people. Interpret the result together with other kidney tests.

eGFR is an estimate of how well the kidneys filter the blood; the laboratory calculates it from creatinine, age and sex. A low result can be temporary or point to chronic kidney disease, and a high result can be normal, for example in pregnancy. The result can be less accurate with very large or very small muscle mass and needs review with other tests.

The dipstick detects activity in urine that can come from red blood cells, free hemoglobin or myoglobin. The result should be negative; a positive result alone does not show which of these is present. Review it together with the urine sediment, other urine results and kidney function; it does not show the cause on its own.

Ketone bodies, such as acetone, are made mainly in the liver when the body burns more fat for energy; this test detects them in urine. They can appear with fasting, a low-carbohydrate diet, exercise or fever, and in a person with diabetes they can suggest a risk of ketoacidosis. The dipstick detects beta-hydroxybutyrate less well, so a normal result does not always exclude a serious disorder.

Ketone bodies, such as acetone, are made mainly in the liver when the body burns more fat for energy; this test detects them in urine. They can appear with fasting, a low-carbohydrate diet, exercise or fever, and in a person with diabetes they can suggest a risk of ketoacidosis. The dipstick detects beta-hydroxybutyrate less well, so a normal result does not always exclude a serious disorder.

Leukocyte esterase is an enzyme in white blood cells, and the dipstick test shows indirectly whether urine contains them. The result should be negative; a positive result most often suggests a urinary tract infection, but leukocytes can also appear with stones or sample contamination. Review it with the sediment, nitrite and symptoms.

This test measures the amount of magnesium the kidneys excrete in a 24-hour urine collection. The result depends on a complete collection. A urine result alone, without blood magnesium, has limited diagnostic value.

Nitrite is usually absent from urine, and the dipstick detects it when bacteria in the urinary tract convert nitrate into nitrite. A positive result can strongly support suspicion of a bacterial urinary tract infection, especially with leukocytes and symptoms. A negative result does not exclude infection, and a contaminated or long-stored sample can give a wrong result.

This test measures the amount of phosphorus, mainly inorganic phosphate, that the kidneys excrete over 24 hours. In test names the words phosphorus and phosphate are sometimes used interchangeably. It needs all urine from a full day.

This test measures the total amount of potassium the kidneys excrete over 24 hours (in mmol/24 h, not mmol/L). When blood potassium is low, it can help a doctor judge whether the kidneys keep excreting potassium. The result depends on collection completeness, diet, medicines and potassium treatment, and on its own it does not establish the cause.

Red blood cell count in urine sediment measured by flow cytometry, reported as cells per microlitre (/µL). The result differs from microscopy-based sediment examination (cells/HPF), so reference ranges are not directly comparable.

Squamous epithelial cells line the end of the urethra and the outer areas of the urogenital tract. A raised number usually does not mean disease but contamination of the sample during collection, which can make results for bacteria and leukocytes less reliable. When the number is high, repeating the test is often advised, with a midstream sample collected into a sterile container.

Descriptive amount of squamous epithelial cells in urine sediment, as reported by the laboratory. Categories do not represent a specific cell count or classify the result as normal or abnormal. Descriptive wording does not establish the examination method.

Squamous epithelial cell count in urine sediment measured by flow cytometry, reported as cells per microlitre (/µL). The result differs from microscopy-based sediment examination (cells/HPF), so reference ranges are not directly comparable.

This test measures the total amount of uric acid the kidneys excrete over 24 hours. It can help assess the causes of an abnormal blood uric acid level and the risk of urinary stones. It needs every urine portion from a full day.

This test measures the uric acid concentration in a single urine sample collected after overnight rest. It shows how much uric acid is in a defined volume of urine, not the total amount excreted over 24 hours.

Urea is a product of protein metabolism, excreted by the kidneys. A high result can point to kidney failure, but dehydration can also raise it, and the normal range depends on diet and kidney function. Interpret it together with creatinine; urea is less sensitive than eGFR.

This test measures the total amount of urea removed from the body over 24 hours. It helps assess protein metabolism and, roughly, dietary protein intake. It needs every urine portion from a full day.

This test measures the albumin concentration in a urine sample. Healthy kidneys barely let this protein into urine, so a high result can point to early glomerular damage, nephropathy, hypertension or diabetic kidney disease. It is most often read together with urine creatinine as the ACR; the normal value in a spot sample is typically below 30 mg/L.

The ACR compares the amount of albumin with the amount of creatinine in the same urine sample and is the basic test for albumin loss in urine. A result below 30 mg/g is normal to mildly increased, 30–300 mg/g moderately and above 300 mg/g severely increased. Exercise, fever, a urinary tract infection or menstruation can raise it, so an abnormal result is worth confirming.

Urine clarity describes whether the sample is clear, slightly opalescent or cloudy. Cloudiness can come from leukocytes, red blood cells, bacteria, mucus, crystals or sample contamination, but slight cloudiness does not always mean disease. Interpret it together with other urine results and the sediment, and repeat a badly collected sample.

This is a visual assessment of urine color in a general urine test.

This test measures creatinine excretion in urine over a day and helps assess kidney function and glomerular filtration. A low result may point to kidney failure, and the normal range depends on body weight. It needs urine collection for 24 hours.

Glucose is the main energy source for cells; healthy kidneys take almost all glucose back from the filtrate, so urine usually has none. The test is a simple screening test that can signal metabolic disorders. It does not replace blood glucose measurement, because the result depends on glycemia, the individual renal threshold and tubular function.

This semi-quantitative dipstick test detects glucose in urine. Review a positive result together with the clinical context and current glycemia.

Urine osmolality measures how well the kidneys concentrate and dilute urine. The result helps diagnose diabetes insipidus and SIADH and assess renal tubular function. The normal range is 300–900 mOsm/kg, but it can vary a lot with hydration.

This measure gives the amount of urine passed in millilitres per kilogram of body weight per hour, averaged over several hours. It is used mainly in children. It helps a doctor judge whether urine output is clearly higher than usual, but on its own it does not diagnose a disease.

Urine pH shows whether urine is acidic or alkaline and reflects how the kidneys regulate acid-base balance. Persistently low pH (below 5.5) favors uric acid stones, and alkaline urine may result from a diet rich in fruit and vegetables or from infection. pH changes during the day, so it is read with other urine results.

Urine potassium is the potassium concentration in a single urine sample. When blood potassium is low, the potassium-to-creatinine ratio can help a doctor judge the contribution of kidney excretion, but it does not diagnose a specific disease. It is read together with creatinine from the same sample, because the concentration alone depends on how concentrated the urine is.

Urine protein is the amount of protein passed in urine; in a healthy person it is usually undetectable or present only in trace amounts. Persistent or high proteinuria may point to kidney disease, while a temporary rise may occur after exercise, with fever or with dehydration. The dipstick test is most sensitive to albumin, so the result is read with ACR, creatinine and eGFR.

Semi-quantitative dipstick test detecting protein in urine.

The urine protein-to-creatinine ratio (PCR) measures the amount of protein in urine relative to creatinine, in mg/g. A high result means proteinuria, which is increased protein excretion in urine. The result may be temporarily raised after exercise, or with fever, infection or dehydration, so it is read together with eGFR, creatinine, ACR and a urinalysis.

Red blood cells in urine sediment are cells that the kidney filtration barrier normally keeps in the blood. Their presence (hematuria) means blood enters urine in the urinary tract, for example with infection, stones, glomerular disease, injury or cancer. A small number can be temporary, for example after exercise, so the result is read with symptoms and other urine results.

White blood cells in urine sediment are normally present in urine in very small numbers. A raised number (leukocyturia) is a sensitive but non-specific sign of inflammation in the urinary tract, most often infection, but also stones or kidney inflammation. The result is read together with bacteria, nitrites and symptoms; sample contamination can cause mild leukocyturia.

Urine sodium concentration reflects how the kidneys regulate sodium balance; the normal range is 40–220 mmol/L in a single sample. A low level may indicate dehydration or hypovolemia, and a high level occurs in SIADH, osmotic diuresis or with diuretic use. The result comes from a single sample, so a doctor reads it in the context of other results.

Urine specific gravity shows how concentrated urine is compared with pure water. A high result means strongly concentrated urine, for example with low fluid intake, fever or glucose in urine, and a low result means diluted urine, for example after drinking a lot of water. It does not measure kidney filtration, and the result depends on hydration and time of collection.

Qualitative urobilinogen result from a routine urinalysis.

Urobilinogen forms in the intestines from bilirubin, which comes from the breakdown of hemoglobin, and a small amount in urine is normal. A raised level may be linked to liver disease or increased breakdown of red blood cells, and a lack of urobilinogen to blocked bile flow into the intestines. The result does not establish a diagnosis; it is read with urine bilirubin and liver tests.

White blood cell count in urine sediment measured by flow cytometry, reported as cells per microlitre (/µL). The result differs from microscopy-based sediment examination (cells/HPF), so reference ranges are not directly comparable.

Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) is the main protein of LDL particles, and each atherogenic particle contains one ApoB molecule. A high level increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis. ApoB reflects the number of atherogenic particles better than LDL-C, so it is especially useful when triglycerides are elevated.

HDL cholesterol is the cholesterol in high-density lipoproteins, which take excess cholesterol from blood vessel walls to the liver. A low HDL level weakens this removal and raises the risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease, even when LDL is not clearly high. The result is read together with LDL and triglycerides, because low HDL is often seen with high triglycerides.

LDL cholesterol is the cholesterol in low-density lipoproteins, which are the main carriers of cholesterol to the tissues. An excess is directly linked to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. The same result may be optimal for a healthy person and critical for a person after a heart attack, so the assessment depends on the patient's risk profile.

Lipoprotein(a), or Lp(a), is a particle similar to LDL that also contains a protein called apolipoprotein(a). A high level is an independent risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and aortic valve stenosis. The Lp(a) level is largely genetic and changes little with lifestyle, and the test is especially useful when premature heart disease runs in the family.

Non-HDL cholesterol is total cholesterol minus HDL cholesterol. It includes cholesterol carried by potentially atherogenic lipoproteins and may be reported directly in a lipid panel or calculated from total cholesterol and HDL.

Total cholesterol (TC) is the total amount of cholesterol in the blood, carried by LDL, HDL and triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. A high level, called hypercholesterolemia, increases the risk of atherosclerosis, heart attack and stroke. TC alone does not show which fraction raises it, so it is read together with the other lipid panel results.

Triglycerides (TG) are the main form of energy storage and circulate in the blood. A high level increases the risk of atherosclerosis, heart attack and stroke, and a very high level, above 500 mg/dl, can cause acute pancreatitis. The level is measured fasting, and high TG often cause no symptoms, so they are read together with the rest of the lipid panel.

ALP (alkaline phosphatase) is an enzyme found mainly in the liver, bile ducts and bones. A high result can mean impaired bile flow or increased bone remodeling, and a low result can be linked to nutrient deficiencies or rare genetic conditions. In children and teenagers higher values are often normal, and the result is read together with other tests.

ALT is an enzyme found mainly in liver cells. A high result most often means damage or overload of liver cells, for example with fatty liver, alcohol, medicines or viral hepatitis; a low result usually has little meaning. A normal result does not rule out disease, and the result is read together with AST, bilirubin, ALP and GGTP.

AST is an enzyme found mainly in the liver, but also in muscles and the heart. A high result means possible cell damage, for example of the liver, muscles or heart, and it can also occur after intense exercise or with some medicines; a low result usually has little meaning. The result is read together with ALT, bilirubin, ALP and GGTP, and a normal result does not rule out disease.

Serum or plasma cholinesterase (BChE) is an enzyme made mainly by the liver and released into the blood. The test measures enzyme activity, and the result is compared with the laboratory reference range because ranges depend on the method. The result alone does not diagnose liver disease, poisoning or an inherited enzyme deficiency.

Direct bilirubin is the part of bilirubin that the liver has already processed and that is ready to leave the body with bile. A high result most often means a problem with bile flow, for example bile stasis or a disease of the liver or bile ducts; a very low result usually has no importance. The result is read together with total and indirect bilirubin and with ALP, GGTP, ALT and AST.

This is the recorded conclusion of an imaging or histology examination about liver steatosis, not a numeric measurement. A result of steatosis present means the report describes steatosis, and not detected means a negative result within the sensitivity of the method and does not rule out mild changes. Liver stiffness in kPa does not show fat content and must not be entered here.

GGTP is an enzyme found mainly in the liver and bile ducts. A high result can occur with diseases of the liver and bile ducts, after alcohol, with some medicines and with fatty liver, and a low result usually has no importance. GGTP does not point to one disease, so it is read together with ALP, ALT, AST and bilirubin.

Indirect bilirubin is the form of bilirubin that forms when red blood cells break down and that the liver has not yet processed. A high result most often means too much red blood cell breakdown or too slow processing of bilirubin in the liver, for example in Gilbert syndrome. The result helps separate these causes from bile flow disorders and is read together with total and direct bilirubin.

Total bilirubin is a yellow pigment that forms when red blood cells break down, and it is the sum of indirect and direct bilirubin. A high result can cause jaundice, first visible in the whites of the eyes, and the cause can be a problem with blood cells, the liver or bile flow. The result alone does not show where the problem is, so it is read together with the direct and indirect fractions.

Measured blood oxygen saturation as a percentage. Record measurement time, reliability, repeat reading and oxygen use when known. A single reading does not replace assessment of current symptoms.

Current body temperature interpreted using the measurement site.

A body temperature measurement taken at any time of day. Its meaning depends on the measurement site, so the site should be reported together with the value. This measurement does not replace the morning temperature, which keeps its own meaning.

Diastolic blood pressure from a properly performed and documented measurement series.

Enter your current height without shoes.

Resting pulse, the number of heartbeats per minute measured after a few minutes of calm rest, usually about 10 minutes. It does not require fasting or a morning hour.

Systolic blood pressure from a properly performed and documented measurement series.

Waist circumference measured midway between the lower margin of the last palpable rib and the top of the iliac crest, after a normal expiration.

Enter your current body weight. If possible, take a morning measurement without clothing or in underwear only.

Anti-HCV are antibodies against the hepatitis C virus. A positive result indicates HCV infection, and the normal result is negative. The test helps diagnose viral hepatitis and monitor treatment.

Anti-IF are antibodies against intrinsic factor, which is needed to absorb vitamin B12. A positive result strongly indicates pernicious anemia, because the antibodies impair B12 absorption in the ileum. The test helps find the cause of vitamin B12 deficiency.

Anti-tTG IgA are antibodies against tissue transglutaminase of the IgA class. A positive result strongly indicates celiac disease, and the test is the main screening test for diagnosing it. The result should be read together with the total IgA level.

Final laboratory category for quantitative ASO (antistreptolysin O) in serum or validated plasma, as the laboratory or manufacturer reports it for the assay used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

Result of a test for the BCR::ABL1 fusion gene, given in the laboratory report. A positive result needs a hematologist's assessment for chronic myeloid leukemia. The source gives no other limitations.

A numeric anti-PT IgG result for Bordetella pertussis, in IU/mL. Use it only for the confirmed EUROIMMUN Anti-Bordetella pertussis Toxin ELISA IgG assay. Do not apply the 40 and 100 IU/mL cutoffs to other assays or units.

Final laboratory category for IgG antibodies to pertussis toxin (anti-PT) in serum. The laboratory interpretation takes precedence over a numeric result. Interpret it together with other results.

Final laboratory category for the screening test for IgG antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in serum or plasma, as the laboratory or manufacturer reports it for the assay used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

Final laboratory category for the screening test for IgM antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in serum or plasma, as the laboratory or manufacturer reports it for the assay used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

A quantitative IgG antibody result in RU/mL, valid only for the EUROIMMUN Anti-Borrelia plus VlsE ELISA IgG assay in serum or plasma. Do not apply this assay's cutoffs to other methods or units. Interpret the result together with other results.

A quantitative IgM antibody result in RU/mL, valid only for the EUROIMMUN Anti-Borrelia ELISA IgM assay in serum or plasma. Do not apply this assay's cutoffs to other methods or units. Interpret the result together with other results.

Result of a test for acquired changes in the CALR gene, given in the genetic laboratory report. The source does not describe what a positive or negative result means. A hematologist interprets the result together with the blood count and the bone marrow report.

A numeric serum IgA antibody result for Chlamydia pneumoniae, reported as an Index. Use it only for an assay whose manufacturer confirms the 0.9 and 1.1 cutoffs. Do not apply these cutoffs to other methods, units or unconfirmed assays.

Final laboratory category for IgA antibodies to Chlamydia pneumoniae in serum, following the interpretation for the immunologic assay or MIF titer used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

A numeric serum IgG antibody result for Chlamydia pneumoniae, in RU/mL. Use it only for the confirmed EUROIMMUN Anti-Chlamydia pneumoniae ELISA IgG assay. Do not apply the 20 RU/mL cutoff to other methods or units.

Final laboratory category for IgG antibodies to Chlamydia pneumoniae in serum, following the interpretation for the immunologic assay or MIF titer used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

A numeric serum IgM antibody result for Chlamydia pneumoniae, reported as Ratio or Index. Use it only for the confirmed EUROIMMUN Anti-Chlamydia pneumoniae ELISA IgM assay. Do not apply the 0.8 and 1.1 cutoffs to RU/ml, AU/ml, U/ml, MIF, other manufacturers or unconfirmed methods.

Final laboratory category for IgM antibodies to Chlamydia pneumoniae in serum, following the interpretation for the immunologic assay or MIF titer used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

Final laboratory category for IgA antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis in serum, following the interpretation for the validated immunologic assay or titer used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

A quantitative serum IgA antibody result for Chlamydia trachomatis, in U/ml, valid only for the ORGENTEC Alegria Anti-Chlamydia trachomatis IgA ORG 906A assay. The 25 U/ml cutoff and the 0-200 U/ml measurement range do not apply to other methods or units.

A quantitative serum IgG antibody result for Chlamydia trachomatis, in RU/mL, valid only for the confirmed EUROIMMUN Anti-Chlamydia trachomatis ELISA IgG assay. The 16 and 22 RU/mL cutoffs do not apply to other assays, methods or units.

Final laboratory category for IgG antibodies to Chlamydia trachomatis in serum, following the interpretation for the validated immunologic assay or titer used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

DAO (diamine oxidase) activity in serum or plasma, in U/ml, for the DAO-REA Sciotec assay. The 3 and 10 U/ml cutoffs apply only to this assay or a method with confirmed equivalence. Do not use them for DAO protein concentration, other assays, methods or units.

Final category for diamine oxidase (DAO) that the laboratory or manufacturer gives for the assay used. It takes precedence over a numeric result and keeps the method-specific interpretation, including a validated pregnancy category. Interpret it together with other results.

The test finds antibodies or complement bound to the surface of red blood cells. A positive result helps the doctor look for the cause of red-cell breakdown, but it does not confirm a disease alone. A negative result does not exclude all immune mechanisms.

A numeric EBV VCA IgM result, reported as Ratio. Use it only for the confirmed EUROIMMUN Anti-EBV-CA ELISA IgM assay. Do not apply the 0.8 and 1.1 cutoffs to other assays or units.

Final laboratory category for EBV VCA IgM antibodies in serum. The laboratory or manufacturer interpretation takes precedence over a numeric result. Interpret it together with other results.

Fecal calprotectin is a marker of inflammation in the digestive tract. A raised result indicates active intestinal inflammation, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and the test helps tell it from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The normal range is below 50 µg/g.

The test detects hidden blood in stool. A positive result may indicate bleeding from the digestive tract, including colorectal cancer, polyps, ulcers or inflammatory bowel disease. It is a screening test recommended for colorectal cancer prevention.

Fecal pancreatic elastase-1 is a pancreatic enzyme whose level shows whether the pancreas makes enough digestive enzymes. A low result may suggest exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, but it does not point to one cause. A watery or very loose sample can give a falsely low result, and pancreatic enzyme supplements do not affect the test.

Haptoglobin is a protein made in the liver that binds free hemoglobin from breaking-down red blood cells. A low result, especially with raised LDH, may point to hemolysis. Low values also occur in liver disease, and inflammation can raise the level, so the result is read with the blood count, reticulocytes and bilirubin.

HBsAg is the surface antigen of the hepatitis B virus. A positive result indicates HBV infection, and the normal result is negative. The test helps diagnose viral hepatitis and decide on treatment.

Final laboratory category for IgA antibodies to Helicobacter pylori in serum, following the interpretation for the validated assay used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

A quantitative serum IgA antibody result for Helicobacter pylori, in U/ml, valid only for the ORGENTEC Alegria Anti-Helicobacter pylori IgA ORG 917A assay. The 25 U/ml cutoff and the 0-200 U/ml measurement range do not apply to other methods or units.

A quantitative serum IgG antibody result for Helicobacter pylori, in RU/mL, valid only for the confirmed EUROIMMUN Anti-Helicobacter pylori ELISA IgG assay. The 20 RU/mL cutoff does not apply to other assays, methods or units.

Final laboratory category for IgG antibodies to Helicobacter pylori in serum, following the interpretation for the validated assay used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

The result is the final laboratory category of type-specific HSV-2 IgG antibodies in serum or plasma. The source does not describe what a high or low result means. The category given by the laboratory or test manufacturer takes precedence over a numeric result.

The result is the final laboratory category of HSV IgM antibodies in serum, following the rules of the test used. An invalid or uninterpretable result has no clinical meaning. The category from the laboratory or manufacturer takes precedence, and the test has no universal numeric cutoff.

hs-cTnT is a highly sensitive marker of heart muscle cell damage, based on the protein troponin T. A raised result means heart muscle injury, but the cause can be ischemia, heart failure, arrhythmia, severe infection or kidney disease, so it does not prove a heart attack alone. The result is read together with symptoms, the ECG and changes in level over repeated measurements.

A numeric HSV-2 IgG antibody result in Index units, obtained with the HerpeSelect HSV-2 ELISA IgG test. The source does not describe what a high or low result means. The 0.90 and 1.10 Index cutoffs must not be used for other tests, methods or units.

A qualitative result for antibodies against insulin. It may help assess unexplained hyperinsulinemia or possible interference with the assay. The result alone does not establish the cause.

Result of a test for the acquired V617F change in the JAK2 gene, given in the genetic laboratory report. A positive result is not enough to diagnose a bone marrow disease. A negative result does not rule it out.

LDH is an enzyme present in nearly all tissues that takes part in cell energy production. A raised result is a sensitive but nonspecific sign of tissue damage or cell breakdown, while a low result is rare and usually has no clinical meaning. The result does not show the organ or cause, so it is read together with symptoms and other tests.

Result of a test for acquired changes in the MPL gene, given in the genetic laboratory report. The source does not describe what a positive or negative result means. A hematologist interprets the result together with the blood count and the bone marrow report.

A numeric serum IgG antibody result for Mycoplasma pneumoniae, in RU/mL. Use it only for the confirmed EUROIMMUN Anti-Mycoplasma pneumoniae ELISA IgG assay. Do not apply the 16 and 22 RU/mL cutoffs to other assays or units.

Final laboratory category for IgG antibodies to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in serum, following the interpretation for the immunologic assay used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

A numeric serum IgM antibody result for Mycoplasma pneumoniae, in U. Use it only for the confirmed IBL International Mycoplasma pneumoniae IgM ELISA RE58781 assay. Do not apply the 9 and 11 U cutoffs to other assays or units.

Final laboratory category for IgM antibodies to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in serum, following the interpretation for the immunologic assay used. This category takes precedence over a numeric value. Interpret it together with other results.

NT-proBNP is a marker of strain on the heart muscle, released by heart cells when the chamber walls are overstretched. A higher level means more volume or pressure overload of the heart, and a very low level suggests no significant stretching of the heart walls. Age, kidney function, body mass, arrhythmia and lung disease also affect the result, so it is read in the full clinical picture.

ASO measures antibodies to streptolysin O in serum or validated plasma, reported in IU/mL. Compare the result with the reference range for your age, method and laboratory. The catalog has no universal fallback range.

Schistocytes are fragments of damaged red blood cells counted under the microscope in a blood smear. A share above 1% needs urgent medical review, especially with low platelets. The automated fragment count from an analyser is not the same test.

Stool sIgA is an antibody on the gut mucosal surfaces, and the test assesses the mucosal immunity of the digestive tract. A low result may suggest weaker mucosal immunity, for example in chronic stress or malnutrition, and a high one may indicate infection, irritation or microbiota disturbance. The result is nonspecific, applies only to stool, and is read with symptoms.

Stool zonulin is an auxiliary test that indirectly assesses processes related to the gut barrier. A raised result is only a supporting signal that may relate to greater gut permeability, and it is not a standalone test of gut tightness. Some assays also measure zonulin-like proteins, so the result is read with symptoms, fecal calprotectin, CRP and the blood count.

A qualitative test that detects medicines that stimulate the pancreas to release insulin. The result helps in the differential assessment of hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia. The source gives no other limitations.

Total IgE is the overall level of class E antibodies, which take part in allergic reactions and in the response to some parasitic infections. A raised result occurs in atopic diseases, but also in parasitic infections, skin diseases and chronic inflammation. A normal result does not rule out allergy, and a high one does not show the allergen, so it is read with symptoms and specific tests.

Active vitamin B12 (holotranscobalamin) is the part of vitamin B12 bound to the protein that delivers it to cells. The test is an alternative to total B12 and is preferred in pregnancy. The result is read with the thresholds of the B12 deficiency assessment, not a generic range.

Homocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid and an important metabolic marker. A high level increases the risk of heart disease, and the test helps assess cardiovascular risk. The normal range is below 15 µmol/l, and results help monitor treatment.

Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is a substance whose level rises in vitamin B12 deficiency. A high level shows impaired B12-dependent reactions, and MMA is more specific for B12 deficiency than serum B12 alone. The test is most useful when serum B12 is borderline, and it helps tell apart causes of megaloblastic anemia.

Pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP) is the active form of vitamin B6, used in over 100 enzyme reactions, including amino acid metabolism and hemoglobin formation. A level below 20-30 nmol/L shows vitamin B6 deficiency, which can cause anemia, peripheral neuropathy and mood disorders. The test helps diagnose nutritional deficiencies and monitor supplementation.

RBC folate shows folic acid status over the past 2-3 months and is a more reliable measure of folate stores than serum folate. A low level shows chronic folic acid deficiency. The test is most useful when serum folate is borderline, and it helps assess supplementation and causes of megaloblastic anemia.

Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium and phosphate for healthy bones, and the test usually measures 25(OH)D, which best reflects body stores. A low level can weaken bones, and a high level, usually from too much supplementation, can raise blood calcium. The result is read together with age, supplementation, calcium, phosphate, parathyroid hormone and clinical findings.

Vitamin B12 is needed to make red blood cells and for neurological health. A low level can cause megaloblastic anemia and shows a nutritional deficiency. The normal range is 200-900 pg/ml, and results are also used to monitor treatment.

Serum folate (vitamin B9) shows folic acid intake over the past few days and is needed for DNA synthesis and cell division. A low level can cause megaloblastic anemia, and the test helps monitor pregnancy and supplementation. The result depends on recent intake, and the normal range is 4-20 ng/ml.